Chapter 13. Speed of Light

This chapter considers the speed of light, c, which is a real FUPCON. In the SI of unit measures, it is defined to be exactly:

c = 299,792,458 m·s^-1 (118

Converting c to the SE of unit measures, gives:

c = (3.0 × 10⁸ m·s^-1)(4.1 × 10¹¹ λ_e·m^-1) ×

(1.2 × 10²⁰ t_e·s^-1)^-1 = 1 λ_e·t_e^-1 (119

and, as a factor, we can remove c from equations that use the SE of unit measures. Also, from Equations 28 and 49, the product of ε₀ and µ₀ is:

ε₀ µ₀ = (β 2^-1 t_e²·q_e²·m_e^-1·λ_e^-3) (2 β m_e·λ_e·q_e^-2) =

1 t_e²·λ_e^-2 (120

which, as expected from James Maxwell's equations, is the reciprocal of the square of the speed of light:

ε₀ µ₀ = c^-2 (121

Because we have mentioned the square of the speed of light, let us look at the most famous equation in the world.

A. Einstein's Energy Equation for Mass

For the public, the most famous equation in physics is, no doubt, Einstein's energy equation for mass, which is:

E = m c² (122

Many people believe that the reason for mass to possess such tremendous energy is the presence of the factor, c², which is, neither just the fastest speed possible, nor even double this speed, but the square of this speed. This, they believe, makes possible the great power of nuclear weapons.

B. Energy Equation for Mass, Exposed

As we now can realize, the factor, c², occurs in Einstein's energy equation for mass merely as a constant of proportionality. As Einstein knew, mass and energy are two different forms of a same phenomenon. Therefore, they are proportional to each other:

E Þ m (123

The dimensions of the left side of this proportion are those of energy, which are ML²T^-2, and that of the right side, of mass, which is M. Therefore, to form an equation, a factor of dimensions L²T^-2 is inserted on the right side. This factor is a combination of the quantum attributes of the electron:

λ_e²·t_e^-2 = c² (124

In SE units, (c = 1); therefore, the famous equation is reduced to:

E = m (125

which is less misleading (albeit less spectacular) and what it is supposed to be.

C. Einstein's Energy Proportion for Photons

While we are examining Einstein's energy equations, we look at the one for photons. The energy of a photon, E_ph, is, supposedly, proportional to its frequency of occurrence, ν, in an electromagnetic beam of energy, which travels at the speed of light.

The proportion is:

E_ph Þ ν (126

where the dimension of ν is T^-1.

D. Energy Equation for Photons

To convert the proportion into an equation, we must insert a constant of proportionality that possesses dimensions of ML²T^-2 divided by T^-1 or ML²T^-1. In the SE of unit measures, this is m_e·λ_e²·t_e^-1. Therefore, the equation is:

E_ph = ν m_e·λ_e²·t_e^-1 (127

where ν = |ν|_e t_e^-1 and (m_e·λ_e²·t_e^-1) is Planck's constant.

We see that the historical form for the energy of a photon is, indeed, (E_ph = h ν).

Energy of a Photon

Let us analyze this energy of a photon. In SE units of measure, it is:

E_ph = (m_e·λ_e²·t_e^-1) (|ν|_e t_e^-1) = E_e |ν|_e (128

where E_e is the rest-mass energy of the electron, and |ν|_e is a dimensionless number, which represents the number of photons contained within one t_e of the electromagnetic beam and, because the beam travels at the speed of light, within one λ_e, as well.

We see, then, that the amount of energy contained within an interval of one t_e (or one λ_e) of the electromagnetic beam is equal to the number of photons found in that interval times the rest-mass energy of the electron, E_e.

This indicates that the energy of the electron and of the photon are the same and prompts us to speculate that, perhaps, the photon is a form of the electron. Yet, the electron possesses mass, and the photon does not. However, after examining everything we know about electrons and photons, our minds form a new, duality-based model of the photon.

Duality Model of the Photon

The success of this duality model of the photon depends upon all of the attributes of antimatter being opposite to those of matter. However, the physical literature states that all of these antimatter attributes are opposite to those of matter except for mass. This seems contrary to the principle of symmetry. Also, I have found no mention of empirical proof in the physical literature that antimatter does not possess the antimass attribute.

Existence of Antimass

It is reasonable and probable that an antimatter world can exist only when all of the attributes of its elementary particles are opposite to those of a matter world. Also, the existence of antimass would explain many outstanding paradoxes about our physical world. For a discussion about this subject, see Chapter 22.

This new, duality model of photons, in its simplest form, is, as follows:

1) Photons are not fundamental entities. They are composed of equal quantities of electrons and positrons in some form of energy mode of existence.

2) Photons are massless. The mass of their electronic part cancels the antimass of their positronic part. This masslessness and the forces generated between the electrons and positrons enable (or force) them to travel smoothly one unitary-length attribute after another in the same direction at the speed of light.

3) Massless photons (and gravitons), which are composed of equal quantities of matter and antimatter, are the links between the matter and antimatter parts of the universe.